Which of the following factors is NOT associated with a higher risk of osteopenia and osteoporosis?

Obesity is generally not associated with an increased risk of osteopenia and osteoporosis. In fact, some studies suggest that individuals with a higher body mass index (BMI) may have a lower risk of osteoporosis compared to those with a lower BMI. This is because increased body weight can have a protective effect on bone density due to the mechanical loading of bones involved in carrying more weight.

In contrast, other factors such as excessive alcohol intake, cigarette smoking, older age, and certain ancestries do contribute significantly to the risk of developing these conditions. Alcohol and smoking can interfere with calcium absorption and bone health, older age is associated with natural bone density loss, and Asian or Caucasian ancestry has been shown to have higher incidences of osteoporosis. Thus, considering these associations, obesity is not a risk factor for these conditions, making it the least likely to contribute to a higher risk of osteopenia and osteoporosis compared to the other listed factors.